Electronic frontier Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Electronic frontier - Assignment Example The giants who own the market in the digital world try to kill any competition that they get but this can no longer be done as I can simply challenge any of the plea with the use of the EFF. With the help of the organization I can make sure that my circle of privacy is not violated by the state authorities. I can make a fine line when I want to be anonymous on the internet and express my views accordingly. With the help of EFF I believe that I can challenge anyone who finds my anonymity illegal or tries to find my identity and threaten me in any case. If I find out that anyone is trespassing the line of my privacy I can always approach the organization and inform my government regarding the necessary issues so as to avoid any legal repercussions. I believe that I can protect my privacy to the fullest of extent if given the knowledge provided by the organization. The newest technology allows one to detect when anyone is trying malinger against you or is trying to impose something that I may not have even done. My information and logs should not be accessed by any given company unless they have issues of national security against

Outline the clinical characteristics of depression

Outline the clinical characteristics of depression The clinical symptoms of depression are characterised by an all-encompassing sadness, composed of a remarkably broad range of feelings, thoughts, and physical manifestations. These include low self-esteem, suicidal thoughts, pessimism, and feelings of dejection and hopelessness. Most sufferers will experience sleep disturbance and a loss of appetite and libido. All of these symptoms are usually accompanied by overwhelming tiredness, a lack of interest or enjoyment, guilt feelings, crying spells and social withdrawal. Other common features are psychomotor retardation (general slowing down physically), loss or motivation, and feelings of inadequacy and helplessness. There is often a diurnal mood variation (sufferers may feel worse either in the mornings or in the evenings). See table below for a more detailed explanation of the behaviours associated with depression. Affective Physiological Cognitive Behavioural Anger Abdominal pain Ambivalence Aggressiveness Anxiety Anorexia Confusion Agitation Apathy Backache Inability to concentrate Alcoholism Bitterness Chest pain Indecisiveness Altered activity level Denial of feelings Constipation Loss of interest and motivation Drug addiction Dejection Dizziness Self blame Intolerance Guilt Fatigue Self- depreciation Irritability Helplessness Headache Self- destructive thoughts Lack of spontaneity Hopelessness Impotence Pessimism Overdependence Loneliness Indigestion uncertainty Poor personal hygiene Low self-esteem Lassitude Psychomotor retardation Sadness Menstrual changes Tearfulness Sense of personal worthlessness Nausea Underachievement Sexual non responsiveness Withdrawal Sleep disturbances Vomiting Weight changes Give two or more physiological causes of depression The cognitive model Of the causes of depression proposes that people experience symptoms of depression because their thinking is disturbed. Depression is a cognitive problem that is dominated by the persons negative evaluation of themselves, their world and their future. In the course of their development certain experiences sensitize the individual and make them vulnerable to depression. They also acquire a tendency to make extreme, absolute judgments; loss is viewed as irrevocable and indifference as total rejection. The depression prone person is likely to explain an adverse event as a personal shortcoming. `The deserted husband believes she left me because Im unlovable. Instead of considering the other possible alternatives, such as personality incompatibility, the wifes own problems, or her feelings towards him. As he focuses on his personal deficiencies, they expand to the point where they completely dominate his self concept. He can think of himself only in a negative way and is unable to acknowledge his other abilities, achievements, and attributes. This negative set is reinforced when he interprets ambiguous or neutral experiences as additional proof of his deficiencies. Comparisons with other people further lower his self-esteem. And thus every encounter with others becomes a negative experience. His self-criticisms increase as he views himself as deserving of blame. (Beck) In the cognitive model of depression, it is thought that many cases develop through early life experiences, where parents have been excessively critical, the child may internalise the impact rule that being valued only comes from perfect performance. This assumption may become latent or silent during parts of adult life, where any endeavours are met with a reasonable degree of success. Thus, prior to becoming depressed, the person had by unrelenting hard word, managed to live up to the excesses of their conditional belief however, any notable failures activate the latent assumption and the person becomes sensitised to any signs of falling short of their perfectionist standard. A common factor that interferes with the application of the cognitive model apparently disparate presentations of persistent depression is avoidance. In persistent depression avoidance can serve to mask negative thinking patterns or inhibit the effect of negative thoughts on mood. On occasions, negative thinking may be overt or apparent due to such avoidance. Pinpointing such avoidance in persistent depression is often prerequisite to identifying negative thoughts. The behavioural model The behavioural explanation of the causes of depression is based on the view that abnormality is seen as the result of learning from the environment. In other words depression is a response to life experiences and stressors. Disturbances of mood are a specific response to stress. There are two major types of stress that a person may experience. The first is the stress of major life events that are evident to others. The second type of stress may not be obvious at all to others, but it is the minor stress or irritations of daily life. These are the small disappointments, frustrations, criticisms, and arguments that when accumulated over time and in the absence of compensating positive events produce a major and chronic negative impact. It is appropriate, therefore, to examine in more detail some of the sources of life stressors that may produce disturbances of mood. Four such, sources include major life events, roles, coping resources, and physiological changes. Major life events (Hol mes and Rahe) did the pioneering work in this area with the development of social readjustment rating scale. Rank Life event Mean value 1 Death of spouse 100 2 Divorce 73 3 Marital separation 65 4 Jail term 63 5 Death of close family member 63 6 Personal injury or illness 53 7 Marriage 50 8 Fired at work 47 9 Marital reconciliation 45 10 Retirement 45 11 Change in health of family member 44 12 Pregnancy 40 13 Sex difficulties 39 14 Gain of new family member 39 15 Business readjustment 39 16 Change in financial state 38 17 Death of close friend 37 18 Change to different line of work 36 19 Change in number of arguments with spouse 35 20 Mortgage over 10,000 31 21 Foreclosure of mortgage or loan 30 22 Changes in responsibilities at work 29 23 Son or daughter leaving home 29 24 Trouble with in-laws 29 25 Outstanding personal achievement 28 26 Wife begin or stop work 26 27 Begin or end school 26 28 Change in living conditions 25 29 Revision of personal habits 24 30 Trouble with boss 23 31 Change in work hours or conditions 20 32 Change in residence 20 33 Change in school 20 34 Change in recreation 19 35 Change in church activities 19 36 Change in social activities 18 37 Mortgage or loan less than 10,000 17 38 Change in sleeping habits 16 39 Change in number of family get- togethers 15 40 Change in eating habits 15 41 Vacation 12 42 Christmas 12 42 Minor violations of the law 11 The scale ranks important life events and assigns a specific value to each one on the basis of the amount of coping behaviour needed by the individual to deal with the event. As the score of the mean value increases, the likelihood of an illness increases. The behavioural model overcomes the ethical issues raised by the medical model of labelling someone as `ill or abnormal, instead the model concentrates on behaviour and whether it is adaptive of maladaptive. Those who support the psychodynamic model, however, claim the behavioural model focuses only on symptoms and ignores the cause of abnormal behaviour they claim that the symptoms are merely the tip of the iceberg, the outward expression of deeper underlying emotional problems. Coping resources Life stress may also take the form of inadequate coping resources. Personal resources available to individuals include their socioeconomic status (income, occupation, social position, and education), families (nuclear and extended), interpersonal networks, and the secondary organizations provided by the broader social environment. The far-ranging effects of poverty, discrimination, inadequate housing, and social isolation cannot be ignored or taken lightly. Physiological changes Disturbances in mood may also occur as a response to physiological changes produced by drugs or a wide variety of physical illnesses. Drug- induced depressions have been noted to occur following treatments with various antihypertensive drugs and the abuse of addictive substances, such as amphetamines, and barbiturates. Depression may also occur, secondary to a wide variety of medical illnesses, for example viral infections, nutritional deficiencies, endocrine disorders, anaemias, and central nervous system disorders, such as multiple sclerosis, tumours, and cerebral vascular disease. Evaluate psychodynamic therapy in treatment of depression in terms of its strengths and weakness Psychodynamic therapy is a generic term that embraces all those therapies of an analytic nature. Probably the majority of psychodynamicists adhere to work and teaching of Freud. But also in this group you will find therapy based on ideas of various other psychologists including Jung and Adler. In this type of therapy, the therapist keeps his own personality out of the picture. This vital aspect of psychodynamic psychotherapy and it enables the therapist to be like a blank canvas onto which patients can transfer and project deep feelings about themselves, their parents and other significant people in their life. It is then up to the therapist to handle all the feelings and information that emerge, to gradually help patients to deal with all this `baggage. In this way the therapists helps patients gain a better understanding of what their disturbances are and how their mind works. The term psychodynamic refers to a group of explanations that try to account for the dynamics of behaviour i.e. the forces that motivate behaviour. Freuds revolutionary theory was that depression does not have a physical cause, but instead arises from unresolved, unconscious conflicts which form in early childhood. This model is based on Freuds theory of psychosexual development. A child passes through a series of stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) if there is a major conflict at any of these stages, the child can spend an unusually long time at that developmental stage (called fixation) if and adult experiences great personal problems, he or she will tend to show regression (going backwards through the stages of psychosexual development) to the stage at which he or she had previously been fixated. The prime goal of therapy is to enable patients to gain access to their repressed ideas and conflicts, and to encourage them to face up to whatever pops out from the unconscious mind. Freud initially used hypnosis as a means of accessing repressed memories but later turned to the analysis of dreams and technique of free association, where a client is encouraged to say the first thing that comes in to his or her mind. The strengths of psychodynamic therapy is that it identifies traumatic childhood experiences as a factor in the development of depression in later life. A weakness of this type of therapy is that the therapist may appear disinterested in the clients current problems. A depressed patient wants to talk about themselves now as opposed to then. Another weakness to the Freudian approach is that it tends to focus too much on sex, and does not emphasise the importance of interpersonal and social factors in causing and maintaining depression. A patient must have the right to approve or disapprove of any treatment programme and a depressed patient may well have fears and doubts about laying their soul to bear to a stranger. Another ethical implication of this type of therapy is that patients may not take any responsibility for their illness depends on unconscious processes over which they have no control. In addition, the idea that adult mental illness is based in childhood experiences implies that parents are at least partially to blame. Is it ethical to cause distress to parents by suggesting that they are responsible for their childs menta l illness? Serious ethical issues are raised by numerous recent cases of false memory syndrome, where patients in therapy have made allegations about childhood physical or sexual abuse which may or may not be true. Freud believed that men and women have their own biologically determined sexual natures, and depression can develop when the natural course of their sexual development is thwarted. This notion is ethically dubious, as it ignores cultural differences in sexual attitudes and behaviour. Outline the clinical characteristics of Schizophrenia Although the popular concept of split personality is still common the reality of Schizophrenia is far more complex. The two most frequently found elements of the illness are delusions and hallucinations. Bizarre delusions are common. The content of these delusions is patently absurd and has no possible basis in fact, such as delusions of being controlled, thought broadcasting or thought insertion. Suffers often report grandiose or religious delusions or beliefs about themselves having physical symptoms which do not in fact exist. They may feel persecuted or irrationally jealous. A particularly distressing symptom consists of auditory hallucinations in which either a voice keeps up a running commentary on the individuals behaviour of thoughts, or two or more voices converse with each other. To the outsider the sufferer may appear incoherent, blinded or even catatonic. There is a marked deterioration from their previous level of functioning in such areas as work, social relations and self care. Below is a list of symptoms from American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, third edition, Washington, D.C, APA, 1980. Social isolation or withdrawal Marked impairment in role functioning as wage earner, student, or homemaker Marked peculiar behaviour (e.g., collecting garbage, talking to self in public, or hoarding food) Marked impairment in personal hygiene and grooming Blunted, flat, or inappropriate affect Digressive, vague, over elaborate, circumstantial, or metaphorical speech Odd or bizarre ideation, or magical thinking, e.g., superstitousness, clairvoyance, telepathy, sixth sense, others can feel my feelings, overvalued ideas, ideas of reference Unusual perceptual experiences, e.g., recurrent illusions, sensing the presence of a force or person not actually present. Give two or more psychological (psychodynamic/behavioural/cognitive) expiations of Schizophrenia Psychodynamic Psychoanalytical theory states that Schizophrenic behaviour results when the ego can no longer withstand the pressures emanating from the id and from external reality. The ego of the psychotic person struggles to cope with stress because of serious deficiencies in the relationship between the person as a child and his mother. When the person is anxious and stressed he employs ego defence mechanisms in an unhealthy way in an effort to control unacceptable impulses and thoughts. Take for example a man or woman with paranoid delusions. So much psychic energy is invested in holding down these terrible thoughts and impulses that there is little energy left to deal with normal daily living. The person withdraws from usual activities and has difficulty maintaining basic physiological needs such as nutrition and hygiene. If stress and anxiety gets even worse, ego functioning may deteriorate further, and the person will be flooded with frightening thoughts and impulses. As ego identity disint egrates communication is confused and garbled, and the person is alone in their own world. According to Freud, schizophrenia is a form of regression, back to the oral stage of development; the oral stage is the first stage of psychosexual development. A baby is born a bundle of id, is self indulgent and concerned only with a satisfaction of their needs. There is a need gratify these impulses but their experiences in the real world result in conflict, people with schizophrenia are overwhelmed by anxiety because their egos are not strong enough to cope with id impulses in schizophrenia, this can lead to self indulgent symptoms such as delusions, such as hearing voices which may have an ultimate authority. It has been suggested that schizophrenia has a psychosomatic cause the origin is solely in the mind. At best it could only be a partial explanation of some symptoms, e.g. delusions. In reality Freud is denying the experience of patients with schizophrenia, it is unscientific and extremely difficult to test. Concepts such as repression are difficult to observe and measure, although this difficulty does not invalidate the theory. The theory is based on unrepresentative samples, case studies, from which it is difficult to generalise. The theory fails to account for gender differences the onset for males is around 20 years, and for females 30 years. Nor does the theory explain why, prior to diagnosis, their behaviour has appeared normal. Furthermore, it also excludes considerations of the environment. A concise explanation of Schizophrenia was given by O.A. Will in his 1961 study of Human relatedness and the schizophrenic reaction. The expression of complicated patterns of behaviour adopted by the organism in an effort to deal with a gross inadequacy in relating to other humans. The Behavioural explanation Schizophrenia can evolve as the results of various experiences that influence the growth of the individual. In most instances a series of life events predisposes the individual to difficulty with interpersonal relationships. The family is the unit within which the first experiences with closeness to others take place. Lack of maternal stimulation or attention deprives the infant of a sense of security and there is failure to establish basic trust. This can lead to a suspicious attitude toward others that may continue throughout life. The quality of mothering attention is also important. A child may be adequately fed and receive impeccable physical care but without any communication of maternal caring. A child who is treated like an object may well become an adult who treats others like objects. Family communication patterns may also be stressors leading to disruptions in relationships. Patients with a medical diagnosis of schizophrenia are frequently members of families with identifiably disturbed communication patterns. Relationship problems frequently become manifest in the symptomatic behaviour of one family member. This deviant behaviour develops when the family is subjected to intolerable levels of stress. A family member who actscrazy may serve the function of keeping the family system intact. For example, if there is a family rule that hostility is never expressed directly between family members, and the parents are involved in a conflict which they may not confront, tension will build up within the family system. One of the children may respond to this tension by acting crazy and performing destructive acts in the home. Evaluate cognitive behavioural therapies in the treatment od schizophrenia in terms of its strengths and weakness Cognitive behavioural therapy is a kind of psychotherapy which aims to change the way that people think about their problem and thus alters the effects of the problem itself. One specific example is stress inoculation training, which is a technique to reduce stress through the use of stress management techniques, and self statements that aim to restructure the way the person thinks. A second example is increasing hardiness, which is building up in the patient a cluster of traits possessed by those people best able to cope with stress. The main strength of C.B.T in the treatment of schizophrenia is that it gives more power, choice, and responsibility for their treatment to a group of patients who have traditionally had things done to them, for example in the form of medication, social skills training and even ECT. There is no doubt that distorted and irrational beliefs and this treatment targets abnormal thinking. The purely cognitive approach grew out of dissatisfaction with the behavioural model and its emphasis on purely external factors. It emphasised internal mental influences and the power of the individual to shape their own thinking. Recently the two approaches have been integrated, so CBT treatment deals with maladaptive behaviours as well as distorted thoughts and beliefs. The weakness of this therapy is that it can be seen as rather limited genetic factors are ignored, and not much attention is paid to the role of social and interpersonal factors or of individuals life experiences in producing schizophrenia. Discuss the ethics of cognitive behavioural therapy Because the cognitive approach to therapy concentrates on the concept that mentally ill people have distorted thoughts and beliefs, it follows that sufferers of schizophrenia may feel that their illness is their own fault. This raises some ethical issues. Patients will be even more stressed if they have to take responsibility for their illness. It is unfair to blame patients for being ill, because their families may be mainly responsible, since it may be that maladaptive experiences in adulthood are based in childhood experiences, over which the sufferer has no control. It is even more striking to understand that the negative thoughts and beliefs of patients could be rational, and reflect the awful circumstances of the way they live in other words, if the patient feels blame they are unlikely to contemplate change. Outline the characteristics of one eating disorder (Bruch .H. The golden cage: the enigma of anorexia nervosa 1978) Perception is also an important aspect of the behaviour of young people with anorexia nervosa. These people perceive that they are fat and literally starve themselves to achieve their goal of being thin. However, because of the distortion in body image that they experience, the goal is unattainable. Even when emaciated to the point that their appearance is skeletal, they will maintain that they are fat and persist in their attempt to lose weight. Bruch describes the typical anorexic process as `beginning with a diet. Initially, the dieter experiences a sense of deprivation and difficulty in maintain the restrictions. However, she then enters a stage of pride in her accomplishment and this perpetuates the behaviour. At the same time, biological effects of starvation cause distortions in perception of body sensations. There is a heightening of sensory experience and a feeling that has been compared to intoxication. As the condition progresses, the patient begins to feel special and different because of her superhuman effort and extraordinary accomplishment. These results in her alienation and isolation from others who fail to understand her behaviour and its meaning to her. She is then becomes increasingly absorbed in her own world and her behaviour assumes even greater importance to her. Anorexia nervosa is really a misnomer. Anorexia means lack of appetite. People with anorexia nervosa do experience hunger, and it is the victory over hunger that provides their reward. Anorexics are often fascinated with food and cooking, becoming students of nutrition. They may compulsively loiter in places where food is sold or served and watch other people eat. Their life becomes centred on food and the avoidance of eating. Anorexics go to extremes to avoid weight gain. They will induce vomiting, take diuretics and laxatives, and exercise strenuously. Many other physical changes are common in anorexic women, including amenorrhea (periods stopping), lanugo (extra body hair especially facial), and bradycardia (heart problems). Another eating disorder that is similar in some respects to anorexia nervosa is bulimia. The bulimic person experiences episodes of binge eating, frequently followed by vomiting. Binge eating is compulsive intake of food that is stopped only when the person vomits, experiences pain runs out of food, or is interrupted. It is differentiated from anorexia nervosa by the fact that severe weight loss is not generally seen and the individual is well aware that their behaviour is abnormal. Bulimics are usually able to maintain a more normal weight by alternating binging and vomiting or by eating very little between binges. Give two or more psychological explanations of eating disorders Psychodynamic Eating disorders usually begin in adolescent girls (90% of sufferers are female). This may suggest that this coincides with the onset of sexual development and sexual fears. Psychodynamic theorists have suggested that an adolescent girl may be terrified by their own feelings of sexual desire, or a fear of becoming pregnant, or even (and this may seem farfetched but is based on ignorance of the facts of life) of a fear of becoming pregnant by oral sex. If eating is mentally links in adolescent to getting pregnant, then starving herself will prevent pregnancy. It also stops menstruation so ovulation stops so no pregnancy. Another psychodynamic explanation of eating disorders is that some adolescent girls are afraid of growing up and have an unconscious desire to remain pre-pubescent. If they lose a lot of weight their bodies will not develop normally and they can hang on to the belief that they are still children. Finally, some patients who present with eating disorders were victims of sexual abuse as children. Consequently they hate their bodies and may even self-harm. There is a theory, supported by Minuchin, Roseman, and Baker (1978) that eating disorders may be firmly rooted in family dynamics. The term enmeshment is used to describe a family where there is no space for the personal independence of the child family members all seem to do everything together. Adolescence should be a time when the child develops their independence. If they cannot do this the anorexic adolescent may rebel by refusing to eat. Families which are enmeshed like this find it difficult to sort out conflicts (Minuchin et al.1978). In the theory of psychodynamics such families create anxiety. This is where ego-defences come in; parents unable to cope with their anxiety put the blame (unconsciously) on the anorexic child herself. Parental conflicts are common in families of both anorexics and bulimics (Kalusy, Crisp, and Harding 1977). This research came to the conclusion that families with an anorexic child tend to be ambitious, to deny or ignore conflicts, and blames othe r people for their problems. Behavioural The psychological theory of classical conditioning teaches us a great deal about the development of anorexia. These sufferers associate eating with anxiety they associate losing weight with avoiding bad thoughts and feelings (Leitenberg, Agras, and Thompson (1968)). The other relevant psychological theory is operant conditioning. The anorexic gets pleasure from gaining attention. It is also rewarding or re-enforcing because slim people are considered more attractive than fat ones. Similarly, there is a behavioural explanation of bulimia. When a bulimic binges it causes them anxiety, so when they vomit they revise the situation and their anxiety is reduced. This reduction in anxiety makes the person feel better, so the cycle of bingeing followed by vomiting is maintained. (Rosen and Leitenberg 1985). Discuss the ethics of behavioural therapies The term is used when considering moral behaviour among professionals, such as behavioural therapists. Certain things may be less acceptable than others, but if the ultimate end is for the good of the patient, then we may feel than an undesirable behaviour is acceptable. A psychiatric ward full of patients with eating orders can be one of the most depressing places on earth. Behavioural therapy usually involves giving patients targets and rewards regarding their consumption of food and drink. Patients with eating disorders can be distressed, stubborn, and frightened; the behavioural programmes developed for their recovery are often unwelcome and in themselves cause anxiety. There are major ethical issues occurring on a daily basis can staff force people to eat against their will? What of the rights of these individuals to be treated in a caring and respectful way? I doubt that loss of privileges constitute a caring and respectful way of helping a disturbed patient who refuses to eat. The issues of informed consent and the protection of patients from harm are huge points of conflict in the therapeutic treatment of people with eating disorders.

The Environmental Disasters of War Essay -- Iraq War Environment Damag

The Environmental Disasters of War The war in Iraq is a battle that will have many aftereffects. The land, air and water will no doubtingly be targeted. It is inevitable that the war will tale no toll on the environment. The use of weapons of mass destruction is one of the causes for the disastrous outcome that may occur from the war. They contain many hazardous chemicals that will target the environment and cause waste products to be contained in the atmosphere. Weapons of mass destruction will also destroy the layout of the environment, as bombings will destroy many of the earth’s natural resources. These events are the two major effects that will stir from the battle for peace in Iraq. It is fairly expected that these problems cannot be avoided with the manner that the war is being executed. Damage to the earth will occur, and the harm will be enormous. One of the most prominent problems that can have major impact on the environment is that Iraq contains many oil wells around the country. These oil wells have the potential to be seized and used as a large scale destruction device. Should the oil wells be destroyed, there will be a massive disaster area, which can span for miles and miles, and still have effect on other countries. The worry is that because there are so many targeted wells, the effects will be on a extremely larger scale than the oil damage that happened to Kuwait in 1991, as it â€Å"left some parts of Kuwait still lifeless more than a decade later† (Keefe, 2003). An oil spill will target the two main rivers in Iraq, the Tigris and Euphrates, and there are fears that â€Å"Saddam will divert oil into the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, rendering them useless†(Vallis, 2003). These rivers are the main source of fresh... ...ks Cited Cevallos Diego. â€Å"Iraq: Environment Would be Another Victim of War.† Tierramerica. Mar. 5, 2003: 4pp. Lexis Nexis. Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, PA. March 29, 2003. http://web.lexis-nexis.com Keefe, Bob. â€Å"War In The Gulf: Scene in Iraq: The Environment.† Cox Washington Bureau. Mar. 21, 2003: p.9A . Lexis Nexis. Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, PA. March 29, 2003. http://web.lexis-nexis.com Pianin, Eric. â€Å"Environmental Damages a Concern: Experts Fear Effects of War on Persian Gulf could be Irreversible.† The Washington Post. Mar. 20, 2003: p.A21. Lexis Nexis. Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, PA. March 29, 2003. http://web.lexis-nexis.com Vallis, Mary. â€Å"Disaster in the Desert.† National Post. Mar. 21, 2003. : p A18. Lexis Nexis. Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, PA. March 29, 2003. http://web.lexis-nexis.com

Conforming to General Health, Safety and Welfare in the Workplace

1.1 When first attending a construction site, new work operatives will be given an induction so that all they have a clear understanding of their responsibilities along with that of the company. This site induction is specific to the site and provides you with information on the current hazards of the site and tells you about the site rules and regulations you must comply to. Information may include:emergency evacuation & fire procedure safety signage †¢ risk assessments †¢ safe systems of work †¢ organisational procedures †¢ use of PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) †¢ COSHH (Hazardous Substances) †¢ storage requirements †¢ control measures †¢ waste disposal procedures †¢ reporting procedures site facilities.1.2 The company shall issue you with the appropriate PPE, the basic provision would consist of safety footwear and safety helmet to protect your feet and head respectively from falling objects, Hi visibility clothing to been clearly seen. These are the basic PPE normally worn when on site in accordance with legislation and organisational requirements. The work task may require addition protection as ear defenders / plugs, gloves, safety glasses, masks, respirators , handling equipment.1.3 Health, Safety, Warning and Information signs found throughout worksite and identified as below:Fire equipmentLocation of fire fighting equipment Mandatory Must doA course of action which must be taken Prohibition must notBehaviours that are prohibited Hazard DangerDanger, warning and caution Safe condition InformationEscape routes and safety equipment1.4 Collective protection is equipment which can protect more than one person and, once properly installed or erected, does not require any action by them to make sure it will work. Examples which prevent a fall include, scaffolds, tower scaffolds and cherry pickers which have guard rails and equipment which minimises the consequences of a fall, include nets and airbags. Collecti ve measures have several advantages. They are easier to use, protect everyone at risk in the work area and need less effort in terms of maintenance and Industrial safety helmets, bump caps, hairnets and fire fighters' helmets user training. Personal measures have disadvantages – they require a high level of training and maintenance and they only protect the user.Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) The needs for PPE are assessed by a person who is competent to judge whether other methods of risk control can offer better protection of safety and health than the Eye protection: Safety spectacles, goggles, face screens, face shields, visors. HazardsChemical or metal splash, dust, projectiles, gas and vapour, radiation Head and neck: Industrial safety helmets, bump caps, hairnets and fire fighters' helmets. Hazards Impact from falling or flying objects, risk of head bumping, hair getting tangled in machinery, chemical drips or splash, climate or temperatureEars: Earplugs, earmuff s, semi-insert/canal caps Hazards Noise – a combination of sound level and duration of exposure, very high-level sounds are a hazard even with short duration Choose protectors that reduce noise to an acceptable level, while allowing for safety and communicationRespiratory Protective Equipment (RPE) Used when you might still breathe in contaminated air, despite other controls you have in place e.g. extraction systems When there is short-term or infrequent exposure and using other controls is impractical Whilst you are putting other controls in placeWhen you need to provide RPE for safe exit in an emergency When you need to provide RPE for emergency work or when there is a temporary failure of controlsLocal Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) in your workplace should carry away any harmful dust, mist, fumes or gas in the air to protect your health: It needs to be the right type for the job. It needs installing properly in the first place. It needs regular checking and maintenance through out the year. It needs testing thoroughly at least once every year. It needs an indicator to show it’s working properly.1.5 When carrying out your daily work you must adhere to health and safety measures in accordance with the given instructions which could include safety data sheets, collective protective equipment, signs, notices, barriers, dust and fume ventilation.1.6 Health & Safety at Work Act 1974, Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH), Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR), Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations, Reach. Codes of Practise. Health & Safety signs / notices placed throughout the worksite.1.7 Having your working area risk assessed, method statements produced, safety & warning signs displayed, all relevant to the occupational area will help the worker carry out their job activities safely and correctly to reduce health & safety risks to himself and those operating within the area.1.8To comply with control measures that have been identified by risk assessments and safe systems of work. You would be required to wear the appropriate PPE, to read and follow safe systems procedures, comply to any health, safety, information and warning signs placed throughout the working site.2.1Following organisational procedures in the workplace, any hazards created by change in circumstances should be reported, these may include a change in weather if working outside such as if rain or frost may make working site areas hazardous with possible slipping on the changing surface area. Staff absence placing undue workload . Work equipment not operating as expected such as dust extraction not clearing air as normal.2.2Typical hazards associated with your working environment could include moving and placing tools and materials in the work area safely, so that they are not causing a trip hazard, obstructing or blocking fire exit doorways. Tools and equipment have been checked for any damage prior their use in conjunction with the correct PPE being worn to avoid the dangers they are prescribed to protect you from. The use of hazardous substances hold its own risks to the user and the environment. users should not leave such substances unattended which could cause harm to other if inadvertently exposed to them. Correct use while wearing the PPE in accordancewith manufactures instructions and following H&S regulations for storage and disposal.2.3 /2.4 http://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/lwit/risk-behaviours-tool.htmFall from a ladder Fall through a fragile roof Lifting operations Struck by plant Overturning plant Fall from scaffolding Fall through a roof void Asphyxiation poisoning Crushed by falling excavation MWEP crushing entrapmenthttp://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/lwit/safety-risks.htmExposure to Asbestos Manual Handling Exposure to excessive vibration Exposure to Sillica Exposure to excessive noise3.2 To ensure safe working on site, you will be issued with various informat ion documents in the form of method statements, risk assessments, training notes, manufacturer’s instructions, control measures, reporting procedures etc. once you have read them you will be required to sign as a record for the employer that you have been provided with the documents, have read and understood the information. Therefore if there is any part of the information which you are not unable to interpret properly or understand you must ask for an explanation before signing. Once you have signed you must always comply with the information and instructions provided to ensure safe working practise.3.2 If during the working day there are issues which could compromise health & safety or you could provide information which can help improve the safe working environment or practises then you should feedback this to your supervisor, manager or safety officer.3.3Welfare facilities are provided on site for the benefit of all, so that you may wash and eat in clean and healthy surr oundings. It is each and every person’s responsibility to keep these areas clean and tidy for hygiene purpose. Also if you find that the washroom hygiene items needs replenishing then this should be reported at your earliest opportunity.3.4It is important that PPE is safely stored so that it don’t get damaged when not in use. This applies for any safety control equipment that is not in use is checked and then put in away in safe storage area in accordance with manufactures instructions.3.5There are company policies for the management of all waste materials on site prior to them being taken for recycling. The waste materials are separated and placed into their allocated waste bins. eg timber, metals, chemicals, plastics, cardboard and general waste. The bins are emptied frequently to ensure they don’t over fill and become a safety risk.3.6If a minor accident (minor cuts, abrasions, splinters) occur while carrying out your work duties then this would be dealt with by the company’s first aider and the incident recorded in the accident book.In the case of a accident being a near miss then this must be reported to your supervisor. The incident will be recorded and a new risk assessment conducted to help to reduce the risk of this accident re-occuring.If there is a accident that is much more serious then the emergency services my need to be called upon. In this case work within the area of the accident would have to cease and the Health and Safety Executive informed. They may then have to conduct an investigation and take statements and could even halt work on the site.Should there be a fire within the vicinity of your work, then you will need to raise the alarm immediately and evacuate the site in an orderly fashion to their fire assembly point, where a resister of all personnel whom have checked in onsite will need to be accounted for.3.7 / 3.8 The chart below shows the types of fire extinguishers, their colour code identification and t heir uses on different type of fires.British Standards *BS EN:2 1992 Classification of fires (ISBN 0 580 21356 0): Class A fires involving solid materials, usually of an organic nature, in which combustion normally takes places with the formation of glowing embers Class B fires involving liquids or liquefiable solidsClass C fires involving gases Class D fires involving metals

Human Motivation the Influential Drive Behind Human Altruism

Human motivation the influential drive behind human altruism At the forefront of social psychology the issue of what motivates one to act in a prosocial manner has arisen with a vast array of theory and response. The heart of the topic lies in the ambiguity as to whether one acts altruistically as a result of an innate response of empathy and compassion, or merely due to self interest. By definition altruism refers to, â€Å"behaviour that helps people with no apparent gain or with potential cost to one’s self†, (Western 2006). Yet, this concept in itself is not unproblematic in that undoubtedly displays of altruism exist, but may not ultimately be driven by selflessness. Motivation is indisputably the integral drive behind human behaviour, and is the most crucial factor influencing human altruism. Reciprocal altruism; simply the idea that we offer assistance and expect it returned, is undeniably practiced with the motivation of one’s personal wellbeing in mind. Similarly, the concept of motivation also provides a logical understanding of kin selection whereby we are inclined to help our genetic related, as aiding one’s family will ultimate better one’s self. A cost rewards analysis, as well as social exclusion can also be depicted as highly motivated by a person’s needs and survival; and therefore can once more be deemed selfish. Thus, by grasping a concrete understanding of one’s ultimate purpose in a given situation, the question as whether we are driven by a natural selfless capacity or with intention of maximizing personal gain can be ascertained. Unquestionably, acts of genuine and authentic altruism exist, however in situations that help is required, consciously or subconsciously the helper is more likely to personally benefit from their action, than not. A motive refers to the goal or object of a person’s action. Human nature is inherently selfish, therefore when deciding whether to engage in a prosocial act; an individual’s primary concern is oneself. This is not always conscious to the individual, yet whether it is a simple question of the motives for an occupation, or concern for the environment; it is linked to maximizing personally or for society as a whole. Krous (2005), conducted research in order to determine what would motivate people in help related fields such as psychology, education and nursing to work with underserved populations; which consist of groups such as ethnic minorities, the mentally ill, the homeless and elderly. The research was conducted using 135 students from Midwestern University majoring in help related fields. Whilst factors such as work autonomy, troubled past experiences or a parent in a helping profession did inspire some to work with such groups, economic reward and prosperity as well as diverse training proved to be vital to a vast majority. Another way in which we can relate people’s motivations with the concern for themselves is through their view on the environment. This was put to the test through a study by Berenguer (2007) whereby participants were presented with illustrations of eight large trees being cut down and a dead bird on the beach covered in oil. The findings concluded that participants conveyed empathy and were dismayed by the devastating state of the environment. One needs to pose the question; what motivates one to act altruistically toward the environment? The simple fact that they are ultimately a part of the environment that they endeavor to save, and thus prevent the personal and societal hardship that would follow its total destruction. The concept that an individual’s sense of belonging in a group impacts upon their willingness to behave in a socially caring manner, once more brings the notion of selfishness to the fore. People are encouraged by their culture and society to take part in prosocial behavior. While engaging in a prosocial act often entails risk and cost to oneself, in the big picture, belonging to a group provides vast benefits. The concept that one’s belongingness will ultimately impact upon a person’s willingness to engage in a prosocial act is questioned in a number of research experiments conducted by Twenge (2007). Experiment One – donating money; had 34 participants take a personality test. Responders were randomly allocated a personality summary of either ‘future alone’, ‘future belonging’, or ‘misfortune control condition. ’ Each participant received $2 for taking part and were informed that there was a collection for the Student Emergency fund. The results had only 37% of the ‘future alone’ donate to the fund contrasting with 100% of the participants in the other groups. Thus, social exclusion lead to a significant decrease in helping behaviour. This suggests that one’s emotional state will pertain to their ability to offer empathetic understanding and an inclination to help others, as Twenge states, â€Å"Social exclusion apparently renders the prosocial behaviour tool temporarily useless. † Therefore, when an individual is emotionally vulnerable and lacking self-esteem they lose their ability to care for the wellbeing of others. Once more the proving human beings as self-interested creatures who are only willing to help when they feel they have been helped or that their society accepts them. Evolutionary theories pertaining to altruism have played a nodal role in understanding human motivations, and moreover through the kin selection theory and the concept of reciprocal altruism emphases once again that we are compelled by rational self-interest, to always put ourselves first. Kin selection focuses on actions of people who are genetically related as stated by Neyer (2003), â€Å"blood is thicker than water, implying that kin are generally favored over non-kin. The motive behind a parent, whether human or animal in protecting their off springs is in their attempt to protect and ensure the next generation. The protection of our genetic code is explored by Maynard Smith (1964), which explains that we are more than likely to help direct family over our more distant family and our more distant family over non-ki n. This idea is heightened in a study conducted by Burnstein (1994) which found that life or death helping was significantly more likely to be offered with close genetic relatedness. The notion of looking after one’s genetic coding for future generations, through the idea of kin selection once more exemplifies the way in which we are hard-wired to act in a socially caring manner to maximize person gain. â€Å"Reciprocal Altruism†, refers to the way in which humans help another person, thus building a relationship where help is expected to be returned at a later date. It is an evolutionary process that clarifies prosocial acts that occur among the non-related. A basic example of such an exchange is acknowledged by Fitness (2007), whereby two fishermen in a village agree to share what they catch for the day with one another. Therefore if one fisherman does not catch any fish they are reassured that they will not go hungry. Such an example supports the theory that engaging in reciprocal altruism increases the chances of survival over individuals who act selfishly, as long as both parties involved reciprocate. Our willingness to help is determined by the likelihood that the help will be returned, therefore in a situation where a stranger requires help it is unlikely that an act will be reciprocated and therefore we feel less inclined to help. In order for the survival of reciprocal altruism, Dovidio (2006) explains that there must be a willingness to chastise those who do cheat and find ways of gratifying individuals that voluntarily refrain from cheating. Reciprocal altruism can be considered a two way street, a relationship in which both parties will profit; and therefore is a response visibly motivated to maximize personal gain. The cost and benefits of engaging in a prosocial act ultimately determines ones willingness to involve themselves, hence supporting the concept that we are hard-wire for personal gain. From this view, humans are rational and chiefly concerned with their own self-interest and agenda. Dovidio (2006) explains the notion of a cost reward analysis, whereby in a potential helping situation the individual weighs the possible costs and benefits in order to reach the most desired outcome. An important aspect of grasping the parameters of prosocial behavior consists of learning when people will help. Dovidio (2006) references the assault of Kitty Genovese, whereby arriving home late from work she was brutally attacked outside her apartment building. This horrific event took place over 45 minutes whereby the attacker returned three times, finally stabbing her to death; with a shocking 38 onlookers that did nothing to help. This incident confirms the view that we are predominantly concerned with our own survival and self-interest as the potential helpers perceived the dangers to dominate over the benefits. Contrastingly, Dovidio (2006) cites the case of Reginald Denny, who was brutally beaten during the civil disturbance in Los Angeles in 1992. Four African Americans were watching nearby on live television and rushed to the scene fending off his attackers and transporting him to hospital, consequently saving his life. Whilst the four helpers were deemed heroes and rewarded with internal benefits of self satisfaction and fulfillment of one’s duty, it challenges the idea that we are hard-wired for personal gain as this act is undeniably a genuine expression of altruism. continuum There is a vast array of motivators that explain why humans engage in altruistic behaviour, a large majority pertaining to the desire to maximize personal gain. Such motivations are reinforced by the evolutionary theories on kin selection and reciprocal altruism; as well as one’s emotional state and the concept of a cost and reward analysis. This is not to say expressions of genuine altruism do not exist, as we have clearly established they do; they are simply few and far between. It is evident that humans have the capacity both to be incredibly selfish and heroically altruistic it would seem that tragically selfishness is hard-wired into us where we are motivated with one leading concern, ourselves. References * John F. Dovidio, Jane Allyn Piliavin, David A. Schroeder, Louis A. Penner. (2006) Social Psychology of Prosocial Behaviour. [Book] Chapter 3 – The Context: When will people help? Chapter 4 – Why do people help? * Krous, Tangala M. D. ; Nauta, Margaret M. (2005) Values, Motivations, and Learning Experiences of Future Professionals: Who Wants to Serve Underserved Populations? [Education and Training in Professional Psychology. ] Volume 36(6), pg 688-694 * Twenge, Jean (M). ; Baumeister, Roy (F); DeWall,(C). Nathan; Ciarocco, Natalie (J); Bartels, (J). Michael. (2007). Journal or Personality and Social Psychology. Social exclusion decrease Prosocial behaviour. Volume 92 (1) p56-66 * Berenguer, J. (2007). The Effect of Empathy in Proenvironmental Attitudes. Environment and Behaviour, 39; 269 * Westen, D. (2006). Psychology 4th edition. John Wiley and Sons, Hobeoken. United States of America * Neyer, Franz J. ; Lang, Frieder R. (2003). Blood is thicker than water. Kinship Orientation among adults. The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Vol – 84. Pg 310-321 * Fitness (2007). Lecture – Altruism and Prosocial Behaviour